Tajikistan, in the land of rivers of gold

Visit-conference by Sylvie Ahmadian, lecturer at the National Museum of Asian Arts - Guimet.

The small republic of Tajikistan is landlocked between Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, China and Pakistan. Half of its surface is occupied by the Pamir mountains which culminate at 6 meters. In the north, the Zeravchan river (sower of gold in Persian) crosses the country for more than 000 km and, in the south, the Amu-Darya (former Oxus) serves as the border with Afghanistan. This region has enjoyed great prosperity thanks to its mineral resources from the earliest times (gold, silver, copper, tin and semi-precious stones such as carnelian, amethyst, garnet, etc.). At the heart of a network of exchanges between Asia, the Middle East and the West, this region has undergone numerous invasions and undergone various artistic influences.

Map of Tajikistan.

Rosette. Gold and turquoise. Mid-4th millennium BC. NE Sarazm.

Anthropomorphic statuette (praying?). Anhydrite. End of the 3rd millennium BC. NE Gelot.

From the earliest times, the western zone of Zeravchan has known a civilization that combines steppe traditions and those of agricultural oases. Sarazm was an unfortified settlement ranging from the Chalcolithic Age to the Bronze Age (4^rd-3^rd millennia BC BORN). We found a city with monumental buildings built of mud bricks. This site brings together almost all the prestigious arts and crafts of the time with the work of stone, metals and clay, not to mention gold and semi-precious stones. From the finds made during excavations, it appears that the city was a hub of trade with distant countries such as Mesopotamia, Persia, but also the Indus civilizations. Indeed, one discovered there Indus type and Mesopotamian type seals, even if they do not bear writing, a shell bracelet which probably came from the Arabian Sea. Some objects from the fourth millennium BC. NE remain mysterious, like a wonderfully polished tapered stone and handles stones (weight?) Whose use we do not know. The tomb of the "princess" of Sarazm (beginning of 3^rdmillennium BC NE) revealed very rich funerary furnishings: a heavy necklace made of 49 biconical pearls in pure gold, a gold rosette encrusted in its center with turquoise, hundreds of pearls in semi-precious stones, a mirror, etc. It should be noted that if the furniture is reminiscent of the Oxus civilization, the funerary structure evokes the Chalcolithic culture of Afanasievo, in Siberia. Other sites from the same period have revealed a very varied culture. An anthropomorphic statuette (praying?), In soft stone, evokes the sculptures of Lagash or the goddesses of Afghanistan from the same period. The ceramics present very sophisticated objects such as a container adorned with five ibex or a cup on foot with a perfect shape and finish. A unique anthropomorphic representation shows a man presenting a vase.

Au 6^rd s. av. NE, the territories of Tajikistan were integrated into the Achaemenid Empire (550-330 BC. NE) from the reign of Cyrus II (559-530 BC. NE). The country found itself straddling Sogdiana in the North and Bactria in the South, two satrapies governed by the Persian system of administration. A typical Achaemenid art or one imitating Persian art circulated throughout the region without however completely obscuring the earlier regional traditions.

Throne elements in the shape of an ibex or zebu fore-body, in bronze, show an obvious Iranian influence, but certain plaques or appliques seem directly inspired by the art of the steppes.

The famous Oxus treasure, discovered, at 19^rd s., in Takht-i Kobad, currently in the British Museum, is the most remarkable Achaemenid ensemble of the 5^rd s. av. NE Essentially made up of precious objects deposited as ex-votos, it was discovered by Turks between 1876 and 1880. Some pieces can be admired in the exhibition. A votive plaque, in gold worked with repoussé, shows an officiant dressed in the costume of the Achaemenid chiefs (tunic, narrow pants, boots, wearing a short sword on his belt (akinakes) and holding a bundle of twigs barsom. The beam barsom is an element of Zoroastrian cult originally made of tamarisk or pomegranate stems. A statuette of a bearded man (king?), In partially gilded silver, adorned with a crown and a knotted diadem, also holds the beam barsom.

Front of ibex. Throne element. Bronze. 5th-8th c. av. NE Simirgantch.

Votive plaque depicting an officiant holding a barsom.Or bundle. 5th-4th c. av. NE Treasure of the Oxus. British Museum.

Statuette of a bearded man (king?) Holding a barsom beam. Silver and gold. 5th-4th c. av. NE Treasure of the Oxus.

Akinakes scabbard adorned with a lion grabbing a deer. Ivory. 5th-4th c. av. NE Takht-i Sangin.

Throne elements in the shape of an ibex or zebu fore-body, in bronze, show an obvious Iranian influence, but certain plaques or appliques seem directly inspired by the art of the steppes.

A scabbardakinakes, carved from a single piece of ivory, depicts a lion grabbing a deer. The relief is of great finesse and uses the formula of animal fights from Persepolis. However, a certain naivety in the rendering of the lion's face denotes a local manufacture.

Twenty golden staters of Eucratides 1st. 170-145 BC NE Former kingdom of Bactria. BNF.

Altar dedicated to the Oxus by Atrosokès. Bronze and stone. 2nd s. av. NE Takht-i Sangin.

Ionic column elements of the cella of the temple of the Oxus. Rock. Takht-i Sangin.

Head of a Bactrian lord (satrap?). Polychromed stucco. 3rd 2nd s. av. NE Takht-i Sangin.

After Alexander (356-323 BC NE) defeated Darius, he set out to conquer Asian territories and, if he does not stay there, he will leave a Greek population of soldiers but also of artisans in the region. Although the Seleucids (311-141 BC. NE) conquered the region, they had to face the secession of the Greco-Bactrian kingdoms. A unique piece of twenty gold staters from the last Greco-Bactrian king, Eucratides 1^er (171-145 BC NE), the figure in profile, wearing a crested helmet adorned with a bull's horn and ear. On the reverse, the legend indicating the name of the sovereign, "Du Grand Roi Eucratide", surmounts a representation of the Dioscuri on horseback.

The site of Takht-i Sangin at the confluence of the two rivers that will form the Amu-Darya has yielded a very large quantity of votive objects and ceramics dated 4^rd the 2^rd s. av. NE The citadel of this moderately important city housed a large temple where a small votive altar dedicated to the Oxus was found by Atrosokès with Marsyas playing the double flute. After his failure before Apollo, Marsyas became a river deity and therefore in line with the river Oxus. In this temple built in raw earth but whose Ionic columns were in stone, were also discovered sculptures in earth and bronze, decorated ivory plaques, bone flutes, gold and bronze artefacts, and 3 800 votive weapons. Some sculptures in stuccoed and painted raw earth testify to the persistence of Hellenistic art. A bearded Bactrian lord's head wearing a bonnet stands alongside Seleucid or Greco-Bactrian male heads. The size of the temple and the quantity of finds suggest that it was dedicated to the God Oxus and was perhaps the object of a regional pilgrimage that would have lasted until the first centuries of our era. A shale pyx lid encrusted with colored stones is very similar to what was found at Ai Khanum in Afghanistan. The site continued to be visited during the 1^er s. av. NE, as evidenced by elements that evoke Yuezhi or Parthian art.

Loop with wild boar hunting scene. Or. 2nd-1st c. av NE Saksanokhur.

Double stater of Vima Kadphisès seated on a throne. Or. 1st - 2nd c. av. NE MNAA-Guimet.

Head of Buddha evoking the Kushan style of Mathura. Limestone. 1st s. by NE Karalang.

The Center and the North of Tajikistan also unveiled objects making the synthesis of the Hellenistic heritage and nomadic art. A heavy gold belt buckle depicting a rider hunting a boar is a good example: the subject, the clothing and the presence of inlays are related to the art of the steppes, the frame decorated with ovals and the three-dimensionality comes under Hellenistic art.

The Kushan Empire (1^er s. av. NE-3^rds. apr. NE) brought relative peace to the region, promoting "Silk Road" trade. Some gold coins evoke its sovereigns; a bronze coin of Kanishka is remarkable because, on the reverse, is represented the Buddha. The Kushan, although Zoroastrians, seem to have favored Buddhism and a small head of Buddha, in limestone, evokes the art of Mathura in India.

Lesson 3^rd-4^rd s. of our era see the rise of the Sogdians who ensured the transit of goods between China and the Middle East. A bract depicting a wolf suckling Romulus and Remus was probably copied from a Roman coin. A plaque, in terracotta, adorned with a naked, crowned and booted Heracles, wearing a feline skin, raising a club against a small figure (Acheloos?) Shows the persistence of the myths while being treated in a more crude manner .

A room evokes the Sogdians whose writing, after having served as a language of exchange throughout Central Asia, generated the Uighur alphabet which served as the basis for Mongolian and Manchu writings. A partially gilded silver cup is decorated with a female figure holding a cloth and vine branches. The Sassanid heritage is obvious, but the allusion to viticulture is Sogdian, and the position and the belt are also reminiscent of Indian tree deities.

Plaque depicting the naked Hercules raising a club against a small figure (Acheloos?) Terracotta. 3rd-4th c. Pushing.

Cup decorated with a female figure holding a cloth and vine branches. Gold silver. 6th-7th c. Lyakhsh I.

Mingqi representing a groom. Glazed terracotta. 7th s. North China. MNAA-Guimet.

Detail of a coat with animal and bird motifs. Silk, samit. 8th-9th c. Central Asia or China. MNAA-Guimet.

These “Asian Phoenicians” had set up trading posts as far as China and Southeast Asia. In China, They provided topics for mingqi representing them as well as the camels of the caravans. A cloak (caftan) with a motif of animals and confronted birds evokes the costume worn by the Sogdians. If the patterns denote the Sassanid influence, it is likely that it can be linked to a set of silks traditionally attached to Sogdiana.

Two important Sogdian cities are presented in the exhibition. Pendzhikent was a medium-sized city which reached its peak between the 5^rd and the end of 8^rd s. The habitat was very dense and the houses had two or even three levels, with very few openings. Wall paintings adorned some rooms and the wooden ceilings were supported by pillars, also made of wood. Many of these woods were preserved in charred form after the fire caused by the sacking of the city by the Muslims in 722. There were also temples dedicated to Zoroastrian deities. In temple II, we found, in a chapel, a colossal sculpture depicting Shiva and Uma sitting on the back of the Nandin bull. In stuccoed mud, this group has never been painted, perhaps to imitate stone.

Four-armed deity (Vaishravana?). Painting of natural pigments on cob. 7th-8th c. Pendjikent.

Caryatid musician. Painting of natural pigments on cob. 8th c. Pendjikent.

King in a banquet scene. Painting of natural pigments on cob. 8th c. Pendjikent.

The hypothesis of a local Shaivite community is advanced, especially since Shiva wears Sogdian boots. A painting depicting a four-armed deity (Vaishravana?), In chainmail topped with a winged skull crown with flames bursting from its shoulders, could confirm this hypothesis. A set of murals come from a room in a wealthy house. The background is dark blue and the whole was deployed around the goddess Nana. Near her throne, a harpist, dressed in a sort of Indian costume, is surmounted by a reddish trapezoid which is nothing but a capital. It is the representation of a caryatid which supported the ark above the goddess. The scenes that adorned the room are difficult to interpret but it seems that they illustrate an epic subject.

between the clan of the rings and that of the dragons. A typical Sogdian banquet scene shows the two kings seated among courtiers. The other scene describes a fight between the two clans.

As said before, the rooms were covered with coffered ceilings or false wooden domes. The carved decorations presented not only ornamental and floral motifs but also gods, knights or animals. A remarkable exposed caryatid must have supported a false dome.

It was not until a century later that Islam arrived in Oustrouchana and Shahristan is the second great Sogdian city which was excavated in the years 1950 to 1970. The city included several districts including a palatial complex from which originates paintings depicting epic scenes. A three-headed arching figure is interpreted as the god Weshparkar, major god with Nana of the Sogdian pantheon. Decorative elements in carved bricks or charred wood show the richness of the palace decorations.

The Zoroastrianism of the Sogdians is a little different from that of the Iranians. An astonishing naked male sculpture in wood is dressed in clothing, a chainmail, boots, a crown and holds cult objects. We agree to think that it is Mithras and it would come from a local temple of Zeravchan. According to Islamic sources, it is known that the Sogdians worshiped fire at the same time as they prayed to idols.

Sogdian Zoroastrianism, however, follows the norm of funeral practices: isolation of the bodies (the earth must not be soiled) for defleshing carried out by animals and the bones are placed in terracotta ossuaries with simplified decoration.

Caryatid. Charred wood. 7th-8th c. Pendjikent.

Mithra / Ahura Mazda naked. Drink. 5th-6th c. Kukh-i Surkh.

Torso of a character in a caftan (Tokharian?). Raw earth with traces of polychromy. 7th-8th c. Adjina-tepa.

Offering scene (pranidhi). Painting on stuccoed cob. 7th-8th c. Kala-i Kafirnigan.

The southwestern region of Tajikistan corresponds to the north of Bactria which was the chosen land of Buddhism and there were many Buddhist sites that corroborate the testimonies of Chinese pilgrims. It seems that Buddhism spread from the 2^rd s. under the Kushan and lasted until the Arab invasions. The Buddhist monastery of Adjina-tepa, erected around the middle of the 7th^rd s., included a monastery and a large stupa built in mud, Gandharan style, arranged in a row. In the monastery, the colossal image of a mud Buddha, in parinirvana, occupied the NW corner of a circumambulation corridor. The walls and chapels were decorated with mud sculptures and paintings. The main shrine also housed a colossal statue of Buddha. On the vaulted ceilings of the ambulatory around the stupa stood rows of Buddhas (Thousand Buddhas) seated, haloed or haloed. The life-size bust of a figure wearing a caftan, found near the parinirvana could represent a prince. The flexible treatment of clothing is close to the late Hellenistic tradition in Gandharan art as can be seen in Fondukistan. Other sculptures, still in painted mud, seem closer to Indian art from the Gupta period.

A mural from the Buddhist sanctuary of Kala-i Kafirnigan (7^rd-8^rd s.) depicts two donors, dressed in patterned coats inscribed in beaded medallions, preceded by a kneeling adolescent and a monk. The latter is dressed in an orange robe which places him in the Buddhist sect of the Small Vehicle of the Mahasanghika, which is corroborated by the paintings of the Thousand Buddhas on the walls and the accounts of Chinese travelers. The fact that the background is red and that the figures are holding a flower evokes certain Buddhist paintings from Tokharestan or Sogdiana, but also certain Uighur paintings by Bezeklik.

A whole part of Tajikistan was under the domination of the khanate of the Western Turks towards the 6^rd-7^rd s. These nomads left few traces except for funerary stelae. Those balbal anthropomorphic in shape is the deceased, standing with his arms crossed over his chest, some holding a cup.

Anthropomorphic gravestone. Rock. 6th-7th c. Djirgatal.

Arab-Sassanid coin imitating a drachma of Khosroes II. Money. 7th-8th c. Khisht-tepa.

Column topped with lynx heads. Stucco. 10th-11th c. Khulbuk.

Lynx-shaped incense burner. Bronze. 10th-11th c. Khulbuk.

The Arab conquest began in 644 but power did not really settle until the 8th^rd s. because the local populations oppose a fierce resistance. We found the first coins minted by the Arabs which imitate the Sassanid drachmas but whose inscription in Arabic bismillah (in the name of Allah) leaves no doubt.

The Samanids will develop a brilliant civilization between 875, date of their legitimation by the Abbasid caliph, and 999, year marking their defeat before the Qarakhanid Turks. Their capitals will be Bukhara and Samarkand and, in fact, they ruled a mosaic of ethnicities using provincial governors, sometimes petty kings, as was the case for Upper Tokharestan where the Abu Dawudids reigned from Khulbuk, but remained vassals. of the Samanids. The Samanids replaced the Sogdians on the western part of the "Silk Road" and Samanid coins have been found as far as Scandinavia or Russia, testifying to very active networks. A particularity of the Samanids is their affirmation of belonging to Iranian culture while they reign over Turkish-speaking territories. He promoted the Iranian language to Arabic script (Persian) and great poets such as Rudaki (858-940) or Ferdowsi de Tus (935-1020) wrote in Persian. The latter completed the drafting of Shah-nameh, (the Book of Kings) and, in his resumption of the epic, he was inspired by the culture of ancient Persia, Zoroastrian texts and especially the legends of Central Asia. The aristocracy and the court, from the great Iranian families, also worked in this direction.

Khulbuk, located in the SE of Tajikistan is the capital of a vassal principality of the Samanids but having kept a certain independence. Many houses and a palace have unveiled high-quality carved stucco decorations with plant and animal motifs, such as a small column surmounted by two heads of a lynx, an animal which perhaps represented a symbol of power. There are also frescoes including a figure of two musicians haloed. All the excavations yielded a very large quantity of objects letting imagine the luxury of a regional princely court: glassware (flasks, bottles, bracelets), local or imported ceramics, bronzes (candlesticks, cups), bone and ivory ( chess pieces, dice). A lynx-shaped incense burner, in bronze, of a well-known model, is the only one to have been found in an archaeological context. In addition, it is signed Abu Nasr and we know several bronze bottles bearing the same signature which would indicate an active workshop in Khulbuk before the abandonment of the city after the middle of 11^rd s.

It should be remembered that this exhibition was made possible thanks to loans from the Museum of National Antiquities of Tajikistan in Dushanbe and to the long French and Tajik archaeological collaboration which continues today.