Chinese Buddhism in the Tang Times - Society of Friends of the Cernuschi Museum

Chinese Buddhism at the time of the Tang

Wednesday 21 November 2007

By Gilles Béguin, General Curator of the Cernuschi Museum

Our dear Gilles has brilliantly made simple what is still complicated and this, with his usual verve and humor.

SITUATION OF BUDDHISM IN THE AVENEMENT OF TANG

It is already an ancient religion in China since it was introduced at the beginning of our era. However, it remains considered a foreign and exotic religion despite some analogies with Taoism.

Problems remain about the accuracy of the translations of the sacred texts (the first dating back to the third century) despite the efforts of Kum? Rajiva (to 344-413):

insecurity of sources: is the text faithful to the supposed model?
lacunary aspect of the sources: texts are missing.
translation problems: the genius of Sanskrit and Chinese languages differ.

Different schools have been created since the introduction of Buddhism in China.

At the same time, there is a long tradition of imperial patronage: in the North, the "barbarian" states (216-618) such as Wei and Qi build many temples and monasteries (Songshan pagoda and Simenta pagoda in Jinan) and have caves excavated and decorated (Yungang, Dunhuang and Longmen).
In the South there is little evidence of patronage also very important.

If the Tang era is considered the height of Buddhism in China, we must still differentiate three periods:

the political height of the Tang (618-755): Buddhism is particularly supported under the reign of the Empress Wu Zetian (690-704) who uses it alongside the system of examinations to dominate the nobility.
The rebirth of Tang (763-843): after the revolt of An Lushan, there is a change in mentalities which will lead to the great persecutions.
The last decades (843-907).

THE POLITICAL APOGEE OF TANG (618-755)

The pilgrims :

The pilgrims undertake these very long journeys as much by desire to obtain new and correct texts as to collect themselves on the high places of Buddhism.

Xuanzang (602-664), the most important of them, leaves China in 629, violating an imperial edict, only to return 645 with 657 texts (he will translate 75) and 150 relics of the Buddha. In 649Emperor Taizong named him superior of the Temple of Great Benevolence. He chairs the translation bureau.
Ban Qi, his pupil, makes a travel report "Relations of Western countries at the time of the Great Tang", a text parodied in the XNUMXth century to become a classic of Chinese literature.
Xuanzhao who travels from 648 à 655.
Xuantai in the second half of the seventh century.
Buddhadharma that crosses the Tibetan plateau towards 670.
Yijing (635-713) that goes through Central Asia to 671 and makes a second pilgrimage which he returns in 695.
Huichao whose return is in 721.
Zhihang goes through Sumatra to 740.
Wukong who makes a journey of 751 à 790It should be noted that these pilgrims follow different routes, either the caravan trails north or south of the Tarim basin, or the southern sea routes, being able to go by one route and use another for the return.

Paradise of Amitâbha,
cave N ° 25, ANXi, near DUNHUANG,
Cl. Gilles Beguin.

Schools or "zong":

The Faxiang school, "school of the peculiarities of things", founded by Xuanzang and one of his disciples. It is based on a doctrine of extreme idealism from the Indian Yogâcâna (those who practice yoga): the illusion of reality. It is centered on the Prajnâparamitâ sûtra and presents an epistemological and idealistic teaching. Its center is Daci'en si, temple of Great Benevolence, founded by Emperor Taizong in 647, in memory of his mother (for the acquisition of post-mortem merits).
The Huayan school, “Flower Ornamentation School”, founded by a dissident disciple of Xuanzang, Fazong (642-712). The fundamental text is the Avatâmsaka sutra or “Flower Ornamentation sutra”. This doctrine fails to convince Empress Wu Zetian.
The Jingtu school, "school of the Pure Land", founded by the monk Huiyan at the end of the XNUMXth century. After a slow progression it becomes the most important religious movement of the Tang era. It is centered on the Sukhavativuyûha sutra or "sutra of the constitution of the Pure Land" and Amitâyasdhyâna sutra or "sutra of the contemplation of Amitâyus". This school develops pietistic and ritualistic practices in honor of Amitâbha (Buddha of the West). The often represented iconographic theme of Amitâbha's "Paradise" represents it between Avalokiteçvara and Mahâsthâmaprâpta, surrounded by Buddhas and boddhisattvas, with, at their feet, the pond of the seven jewels where the reborns appear on lotuses and a platform where they stand. produced musicians and a dancer. Other Pure Lands were created: the monk Yijing (625-713) propagates the cult of Abhirati "supreme pleasure", Pure Land of Akçobhya and the Pure Land of Bhaisajyaguru, the Healing Buddha, but there is also the Pure Land of Çâkyamuni, that of Maitreya, etc.
The Zhenyan sect (in Japanese Shingan) founded by an Indian monk from Orissa, Sûbhakarasimha (637-735), arrived in China in 716, which translates the Mahâvairocana sutra at the request of Emperor Xuanzong, and the Indian Vajrabhodi (671-741), arrived 719. They implant esoteric Buddhism in the capital. Its two main temples in Chang'an are Daxingshansi and Qinglingsi. This sect is characterized for its rituals and exorcisms as well as the beauty and sumptuousness of its ceremonies. She introduces two complementary diagrams around Mahâvairocana and creates a white marble in three dimensions.
The Mizong sect (or Tiantai), "sect of secrets" experienced an unprecedented boom between the XNUMXth and XNUMXth centuries. The fundamental text, translated by Kumârajîva in 406is the Saddharmapundarika sutra. Huisi (515-577) and Zihyi (538-597) hierarchize the Buddhist teachings in five degrees corresponding to the five sermons of Buddha Çâkyamuni, each lasting a decade. The sect promotes the cult of boddhisattvas and more particularly Avalokiteçvara. Zihyi retreats to Mount Tientai, "the Mountain of the Heavenly Terrace", in Zhejiang, hence the sect's name Tendai in Japan.
The sect Chan (in Japan Zen) with its meditative and contemplative character plays only a minor role under the Tang.

In fact the peculiarities of the schools are not so decided and patriarchs belong to several schools (Zihyi belongs to Mizong and Huayan schools) and the Huayan school borrows from Chan its intuitive practices. It is the same in iconography.

THE RENAISSANCE OF THE TANG, THE CHANGE OF MENTALITIES (763-843)

If the revolt of An Lushan (755-763) does not touch the Buddhist clergy either in its goods or in its intellectual dynamism, the reaction to the tyrannical power of Wu Zetian will lead to persecutions. Apparently without follow-up, it is however the beginning of a movement which will be reinforced in the second half of the VIII ° century.

The Guwen movement "antique style", named after an archaic form of writing made fashionable by Liu Zongyuan (773-819), is anti-Buddhist and announces the neo-Confucianism of the Song. The most virulent polemicist, Han Yu (768-824) considers Buddhism as a foreign religion, anti-national and devirilizing (monks can neither bear arms nor procreate). Buddhism is also criticized for the tax exemptions of monasteries, the economic weight of a clergy considered to be parasitic, the considerable sums devoted to the construction of places of worship, the system of "meritorious cloisters" created by the great landowners to evade property tax.

THE GREAT PERSECUTION (843-845)

En 843, Emperor Wuzong (841-846) proscribes foreign cults. Buddhism is spared at first, but then it will be a stubborn persecution:

Return of 260 000 monks and nuns to secular life as well as 150 000 addicts.
Confiscation of the private property of bonzes.
Suppressions of Buddhist ceremonies in official cults.
Inventory of the sacred property of monasteries.
Confiscation of lands, serfs, cash and precious metals.
40 chapels destroyed or abandoned.
46 000 monasteries destroyed or transformed into public buildings. Only a few imperial temples survive with a small number of religious.

This persecution actually targets the economic power of monasteries more than the practice of religion. Finally ephemeral, since Emperor Xuanzong (847-860) returns to most of the decrees published by his predecessor, it will nonetheless cause a cessation of intellectual impulse and sterilization of Buddhism.

Foguangsi, autographed in 857 after reconstruction,
Cl. Gilles Beguin.

THE LAST DECADES (843-907)

The buildings are restored (the Foguangsi in 857 at Wutaishan, the Famensi pagoda).

If this period sees the recension of the sacred texts by xylography and the beginning of the great compilations, there is no longer the driving force nor the intellectual impulse.
In conclusion, the Tang period saw the definitive fixation of the textual canon (translations and comments) and the fixation of the aesthetic canon towards 700 (whereas Chinese Buddhist art had evolved very rapidly since the fifth century with iconographic changes more or less every twenty-five years). The only renewal will be lamaic art put into use under the Qing.

But a large part of the intellectual elite is turning away from Buddhism, a movement that will be accentuated under the Song, in the twelfth century, with neo-Confucianism.

And above all, she sees the irrepressible rise of a popular, syncretic Buddhism (introduction of Taoist deities) to obtain immediate benefits (healing, success, etc.).