Tang China, a cosmopolitan dynasty
Visit-conference by Sylvie Ahmadian, speaker at MNAA-GUIMET.
Dedicated to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), this exhibition was made possible thanks to the contribution of many Chinese museums (32) and presents many objects from excavations in recent decades. This is one of the most brilliant periods in the history of China. This period saw a remarkable expansion of Chinese territory towards the northwest, covering practically the entire Silk Road in Eurasia as far as Iran. Thanks to commercial and cultural exchanges, the empire experienced an unprecedented opening with a mixing of populations that would enrich Chinese civilization. The capital was established in Chang'an (present-day Xian), which was already that of the previous dynasty, the Suei (581-618). It was a very large cosmopolitan city, a true commercial crossroads. It was, in fact, the largest city in the world, at the 8nd s., ahead of Baghdad and Byzantium. Its layout, following a Hippodamian plan with palace districts, commercial districts and religious monuments, would influence the development of other capitals, particularly in Japan and Korea.
The Tang Dynasty is often referred to as the Golden Age, but this can only really apply to the early period (618-765) before the An Lushan Rebellion (703-757) which was to create a rupture. However, the entire Tang period remains a unique moment of receptivity and adaptability to foreign influences.
![]() Foreign prince. Stone. Fengling Mausoleum, tomb of Emperor Shunzong (761-806). |
![]() Groom and his horse. Sancai glazed terracotta. Tomb of Prince Jiemin (died 707). |
![]() Civil servant. Sancai glazed terracotta with painted faces. 709. Tomb of An Pu (died 664). |
![]() Military official. Sancai glazed terracotta with painted faces. 709. Tomb of An Pu (died 664). |
![]() Bleating camel. Sancai-glazed earthenware. (618-907). Foreign groom. Sancai-glazed earthenware. 709. Tomb of An Pu (died 664). |
The dynasty would have 21 emperors since the founder Gaozu (618-626), but it was his son, Taizong (626-649), who would stabilize the regime and continue the annexation of territories both in East Asia and in the steppes of Eurasia. These conquests were made possible thanks to the support of a remarkable cavalry. Hence the importance of these horses, called "celestial horses", very robust, they were imported from Central Asia, in particular from Ferghana. Taizong had portraits of his favorite horses sculpted in stone in bas-reliefs at the entrance to his tomb. They are found in the form of mingqi (funeral statuettes) and they are part of the set that accompanies the deceased in his tomb. In natural terracotta, painted or varnished in three colors (sancai), obtained by projecting metallic oxides (iron for yellow, copper for green, manganese for violet and sometimes cobalt for blue), these "celestial horses" are represented in different postures, stationary, walking, neighing, often harnessed and sometimes accompanied by grooms who may be Chinese or foreign.
It should be noted that from the reign of Taizong onwards, foreign leaders appeared alongside Chinese dignitaries in the "alley of souls" or "path of spirits" leading to the mausoleum. A fragmentary head from his mausoleum shows all the characteristics of a foreigner: curly hair tied in a headband, thick eyebrows. A later headless foreign prince is dressed in a loose coat and wears a belt decorated with six rings from which is suspended a small sabre, attached by three leather straps. Many foreigners will join the Chinese army and sometimes reach high positions.
Two mingqi tall figures include a senior civil official and a senior military official. The former sports a barrette hairstyle (liangguan) while the second wears a headdress decorated with a bird (heguan). If the clothes are decorated with glaze sancai, the faces are painted with great finesse. A character, in painted terracotta, is depicted in prostration as is fitting in a system governed by Confucianism where hierarchy is omnipresent. A rider in armor is depicted on a horse wearing a breastplate, which is very rarely represented in paintings or sculptures. Among the mingqi, we also find camels accompanied by foreign grooms, recognizable by their attire (wide-necked kaftan, boots) and their often caricatured faces (large nose, thick eyebrows, moustaches and/or beards). The camel, essential for the caravan trade, is also a symbol of prosperity.
A new copper alloy coin was to be minted at the beginning of the dynasty, the sapeque. Kaiyuan Tongbao (treasure in circulation at the dawn of a new era). This currency will not only circulate throughout the Chinese zone of influence but will also be copied by neighboring peoples.
The capital Chang'an, is presented as a quadrilateral divided into a checkerboard of approximately 77 square km with the extension, to the northeast, of the imperial domain and the Daming palace and that, to the southeast, of the Furong park. The districts were enclosed between wide streets, the most important of which, with a width of approximately 150 m, the Great Street of the Red Phoenix, connected the South gate to the administrative city and the palaces. Each district was surrounded by a surrounding wall and accessible by gates which were closed in the evening for the curfew. Heirs of the establishment of the Sui, the Tang preserved the division between the city, the administrative district and the imperial palace. The districts of the city also include homes, businesses, monasteries, pagodas and two large markets, Xishi to the west and Dongshi to the east. The West market was rather reserved for foreign traders, hence the highest concentration of foreign population in the western part of the city. Unfortunately, almost nothing remains from the Tang period, apart from the small and large brick pagodas of the Wild Goose. On the other hand, building elements, such as bricks, tiles and floor tiles, have been found. A door knocker, made of gilded bronze and decorated with an animal mask, comes from one of the gates of the Daming Palace.
![]() Door knocker with animal mask decoration pushou. Tang Dynasty. 618-907. Gilt bronze. Daming Palace. |
![]() Cup and saucer. The bottom of the cup is decorated with two fish playing with a flaming pearl. Gilded silver. Tomb of Lady Wu (763-824). |
![]() Tea bowl. Celadon glazed stoneware. Yue kilns (Zhejiang). Tang Dynasty. 618-907. |
The Tang Dynasty also introduced a "culture" around tea. Tea had been known for a long time but was used more in a therapeutic context. During the Tang period, processed tea leaves were ground into powder, then compressed into cakes or bricks. A piece of cake was ground with a millstone to make powder again, which was thrown into a pot of boiling water that could be salted. Lu Yu (733-804) is the author of Tea Classic (Cha Jing), a work divided into 10 chapters that deal with the mythological origin of tea up to its consumption, passing through the different stages of production. A complete miniature tea service, made of ceramic, was found in a tomb dated 832. Tasting tea was an opportunity for aristocrats to relax and it was at this time that the beginnings of the tea ceremony appeared and were exported to Japan. The aesthetics of objects dedicated to the service of tea focused on the jugs and bowls that could be made of precious metal, Yue stoneware or white porcelain stoneware from Henan or Hebei. A cup and its silver saucer from the tomb of Lady Wu is dated 824 and testifies to the refinement of tea services of the time. A small stoneware tea bowl with celadon glaze from the Yue kilns shows that this type of glaze was already known.
The Chinese consumed lychees, oranges from the South of the empire, but with the establishment of international trade, they discovered dates, peaches from Samarkand, pomegranates, etc. Similarly, various spices from Eurasia helped to enhance traditional cuisine. Alcohol was also consumed, "wine" produced from cereals, grape wine and rice "wine". A set of glass alcohol containers comes from Chang'an. Until the Tang, glass objects were imported from the Middle East, which made them very precious objects. Their production began under the Tang dynasty and Chinese glasses are identifiable by their green color due to their composition heavily loaded with copper. It should be noted that the use of chopsticks dates back to the Shang dynasty (1600-1100 BC) but in the exhibition we can see several sets of silver chopsticks. Under foreign influence, chairs with backs will appear as well as higher tables.
![]() Female figure. Sancai glazed terracotta. Tomb of An Pu. 709. |
![]() Court lady. Painted terracotta. Tang Dynasty (618-907). |
![]() Horsewoman wearing a weimao hat with veil and a banbi mid-arm vest. Painted and glazed terracotta. Tang Dynasty (618-907). |
![]() Comb decorated, in its center, with two apsara on an openwork background of volutes. Gold. Also using the processes of granulation and filigree, the goldsmith was influenced by Western techniques. Tang Dynasty (618-907). |
Clothing fashion is evoked with natural, painted or varnished terracotta statuettes depicting ladies of the court. They are represented in two ways: thin, slender, wrapped in a close-fitting dress with narrow sleeves and wearing a long scarf; the other type shows more fleshy ladies, wearing a dress with wide sleeves and a vague shape that gives them a broad and majestic silhouette. Hairstyles are extremely varied (buns, coques, etc.), there are said to have been about a hundred listed. Women of the aristocracy were quite free and could dress in a caftan, trousers and boots. A statuette represents a horsewoman wearing a hat with a veil protecting the hair and dressed in a "mid-arm" waistcoat (Banbi) of foreign origin over her dress. Makeup was important at court and white faces were brightened by blushes, lips painted red, eyebrows redrawn in black and differently shaped hair flies could complete the makeup. A gold leaf comb with openwork decoration framing two apsaras testifies to the skill of the craftsmen of the time, as do the filigree earrings of gold decorated with pearls, rubies and glass beads. The variety of textures and decorations of the fabrics is almost infinite, obeying the fashions. Mirrors, essential elements for the toilet, have crossed the entire history of China. They are generally made of bronze and, under the Tang, the motif of "marine animals" in the middle of bunches of grapes is very widespread.
![]() Group of foreign musicians. Painted terracotta. Tomb of Sun Chengshi (died 736). |
![]() Burlesque actor. Painted terracotta. Tomb of Mu Tai (died 729). |
![]() Pagoda-shaped jar. Porcelain stoneware with blue and white decoration. Gongyi kilns. Tang Dynasty (618-907). |
The court and aristocratic circles entertained themselves with concerts and shows of dance, acrobatics or magic. A small seated female orchestra, presenting various instruments such as the mouth organ, the kite, the flute and bamboo castanets, surrounds a dancer. These entertainments combined music, songs and dances. It should be noted that during the Tang period, there were ten troupes of dancers associated with the imperial palace and, among the ten, eight were of foreign origin, which seems to be corroborated by the presence of a group of seated foreign musicians. A burlesque character with a grimacing face and a contorted body, in painted terracotta, allows us to imagine pantomime shows.
The predominant religions in China were Taoism, Confucianism and Buddhism. While Confucianism is linked to good government, Taoism was practiced in aristocratic and literate circles and Buddhism was widely disseminated among the population. There were one hundred and thirty religious institutions in the capital and the majority were Buddhist temples and monasteries. A Nestorian church was present as well as a few Zoroastrian temples around the Western Market. A Buddhist jar in the shape of a pagoda, in four parts, comes from the tomb of a prince. This type of funerary object resulting from the transformation of the Indian stupa into a Chinese pagoda was intended to accompany the deceased. A bas-relief from the Longmen Grottoes represents a luohan (disciple of the Buddha) holding a lotus. The face of this old monk could identify him with Kashyapa, one of the two favorite disciples of the Buddha. Two great celestial kings in armor were both guardians of a tomb and protectors of the Law. They frame a tomb-guardian genius, zhenmushou, a human-faced monster from another tomb. All three pieces are made of glazed ceramic. sancai.
![]() Zhenmushou Tomb Guardian Genius and Heavenly Guardian King. Sancai glazed terracotta. Tang Dynasty (618-907). |
![]() Reliquary treasure of the Great Cloud Monastery (Dayun). Gilded bronze casket and silver coffin-shaped reliquary decorated with scrolls. The gold case is decorated with petals and inlaid with pearls and turquoises. Dated 694. |
![]() Nestorian stele from Xi'an dated 781. Plaster cast. |
![]() Banner depicting Fuxi and Nüwa. Ink and colors on hemp canvas. 7th-8th century. |
A reliquary treasure comes from the crypt of the pagoda of the Great Cloud Monastery, Dayun. It consists of a gray marble sarcophagus, bearing a long inscription, which enclosed a gilded bronze caisson, itself enclosing a silver coffin-shaped box enclosing a reliquary, also in the shape of a coffin, in gold, housing the glass relic bottle. During the reconstruction of the monastery in 694, Empress Wu Zetian (690-705) ordered the creation of this set of reliquaries, testifying to the virtuosity of the goldsmiths of the time. This is the first time that reliquaries have adopted the coffin shape, which would become quite common thereafter.
The cast of a Xi'an stele commemorating the spread of the Nestorian religion of the Roman Empire (Eastern) in China was made by Édouard Chavannes (1865-1918). Dating from 781, it was commissioned by a Nestorian bishop and relates the spread of this form of Christianity over 150 years. In the lower part, there is an inscription in Syriac. This stele was buried at the time of the religious persecutions of 845 ordered by the Taoist emperor Wuzong (840-846) and this is what ultimately protected it.
A large painted hemp banner from Turfan depicts Fuxi and Nūwa, the first deified ancestors of humanity in Chinese mythology. Fuxi holds the square and his sister Nūwa holds the compass. They are surmounted by a circle representing the sun while their intertwined tails enclose a circle representing the moon. These deities evoke the wish for reincarnation as an immortal, a notion dear to the Taoists.
A set of funerary statuettes represents the twelve animals of the zodiac, in human form but with the head of an animal. These statuettes also symbolize the hours and they were placed at the four corners of the tomb to protect the deceased throughout the day and night.
A transcription of the Confucius Interviews annotated by Zheng Xuan (127-200) comes from a tomb in Turfan. This copy of a lost extract was made by Bu Tianshu, a 12-year-old boy who lived in Xinjiang, in 710. A document of great value, it nevertheless contains two mischievous quatrains added by the student. This manuscript testifies to an identical education in all parts of the empire. A copy of a calligraphy by Wang Xizhi (303-361), an eminent calligrapher of the Eastern Jin dynasty (317-420), is particularly valuable because it was obtained by tracing, which makes it completely faithful to the original. The reproductions made under the Tang are considered to be identical to the originals. Wang Xizhi was held in esteem by all subsequent generations and two colophons complete the scroll, those of Dong Qichang (1555-1636) and Lou Jian (1567-1631), famous painters and calligraphers of the Ming dynasty.
![]() Copy of a calligraphy by Wang Xizhi (303-361). Ink on paper. Tang Dynasty (618-907). |
![]() Incense holder with openwork decoration of birds and floral scrolls. Partially gilded silver. Tang Dynasty (618-907). Famen Treasure. |
![]() Diexie belt. Detail of the carved ornament of a honeysuckle motif. It is in two parts connected by a hinge. Jade, gold, pearls, glass. Tomb of Dou Jiao (597-627). |
The Hejia treasure, discovered in 1970, contains many pieces of goldwork and jade belts, one of which, made of white jade, is on display. Under the Tang, only officials of the three upper ranks were allowed to wear a jade belt. A silver cup with a gilded floral decoration, from Hejia, could have been a gift offered to the court by a territorial official. Another great treasure is that which was discovered in the underground palace of the Famen monastery in 1987. Most of the precious objects were gifts from emperors of the Tang dynasty. Silver cups, sprinklers, and incense holders with engraved and gilded decoration come from the imperial workshops and testify, once again, to the mastery of the craftsmen of the time. A belt (diexie) jade from the tomb of Dou Jiao (597-627) is an object of extreme refinement. The white jade elements have been hollowed out to encase gold plates on which are inlaid pearls and imitations of precious stones in colored glass. This type of belt was borrowed from the peoples living in the west and northwest of China, who hung various objects from it, swinging back and forth to the rhythm of their steps (diexie).
Ceramic polo players sancai depict ladies astride the saddle and wearing a type of kaftan, trousers and boots. Although often depicted as played by women, polo was also a men's sport. A Ming period (1368-1644) copy of a painting by Zhou Fang (730-810) shows "Lady Zhen (Yang Guifei) riding a horse." Yang Guifei (719-756), a favorite of Emperor Xuanzong (712-756), is considered to be the instigator of the An Lushan Rebellion because she had placed all her relatives in key government positions.
Three terracotta statuettes come from the tomb of General Mu Tai, who died in 729, who was of foreign origin. They are very colorful and depict non-Chinese characters with a great diversity of morphologies and postures. In particular, the "black man" dressed in panther skin pants is captured in the attitude of a fairground Hercules. He is probably a man from Southeast Asia. Two stone door leaves are engraved with two foreign dancers (beard, curly hair, prominent nose) who seem to be whirling around. Coming mainly from present-day Uzbekistan which was populated by Sogdians, these dynamic dances were particularly appreciated under the Tang.
A head ornament from the Tubo Kingdom (7nd-9nd s.), in Qinghai (Tibet), represents a phoenix with outstretched wings on a background of plant motifs. The jewel, in gold, encrusted with turquoise, illustrates the exceptional know-how of the goldsmiths of the region.
A set of silk samit fabrics, very fashionable in the Tang period, evoke influences from Sassanid Persia with pearl roundels where birds, rams, etc. confront each other. Appearing around the 6th centurynds., samit, is a fabric whose weft is worked in such a way that it completely covers the warp, thus giving the impression of constituting both the decoration and the background.
![]() Black Man. Painted terracotta. Tomb of Mu Tai (died 729). |
![]() Door leaves decorated with foreign dance huxuanwu. Stone. Tomb of He (died 700). |
![]() Head ornament with phoenix motif. Gold and turquoise. Tubo Kingdom (7th-9th century). |
![]() Fragment of fabric with motif of rams facing each other in pearl medallions. Silk Samit. Tang Dynasty (618-907). |
At the end of the Tang Dynasty, stoneware from the Changsha kilns experienced an extraordinary craze for export to Southeast Asia, as evidenced by a junk found with 56 pieces, proof of the importance of maritime trade.
At the same time, the production of ceramics heralded the following period, that of the Song (1127-1279), with white porcelain stoneware and celadons.
Tang China assimilated a range of foreign influences and produced a highly innovative material culture of extraordinary richness and refinement.