Genesis of the iconography of the Chinese dragon

Conference by Lucie Li Xiaohong, doctor in archaeology and history from Sorbonne University – Paris IV.

If the Western dragon appears as an evil being, with large wings and a fire-breather, the Asian dragon, which has many virtues, is linked to the aquatic environment. The dictionary Shuowen jiezi describes it as "[…] the leader of the scaly animals. It is capable of fading and shining, of diminishing and growing, of shortening and lengthening. At the spring equinox it rises to the sky; at the autumn equinox it hides at the bottom of the waters." The dragon's horns have a sacred function, they would allow the celestial dragon to rise to the sky, thus giving it a divine capacity. Initially, its iconography is not fixed and has known many variations since its first representations which date back to the Neolithic, according to the legends and symbols attributed to it.

In the Neolithic period, the iconographic characteristics of the dragon were very varied. The tomb of Xishuipo (around 4000 BC), in the village of Puyang in Henan, presents around the deceased, to the east, a dragon and to the west a tiger, modeled in the round with shells. If the iconography of this dragon is close to that of the current dragon, other examples show a more singular iconography. On a ceramic plate from Xiangfen (Shanxi province), dated 1910-1780 BC, the dragon is made up of composite elements: a crocodile head with a forked tongue in the shape of a feather, a serpentine body covered with two rows of scales. C-shaped jade pendants from the Hongshan culture (4500-3000 BC), found in a funerary context, depict the dragon with a serpent's body and a pig's head with a mane.

Xishuipo Tomb (circa 4000 BC) (Shell dragon on the left of the photo). ©Li Xiaohong.

Ceramic plate decorated with a dragon. Earthenware. Xiangfen. 1910-1780 BC © Li Xiaohong.

Dragon-shaped funerary pendant. Jade. Hongshan culture. Around 2000 BC. Forbidden City Museum. © Li Xiaohong.

Similarly, in the case of characters jiaguwen, or oracular inscriptions, traced on turtle shells or bovine shoulder blades, there are several variations around the dragon. The Directory of characters on bones and turtle shells from the Yinxu period (c. 1370–1046 BC) lists 268 different scripts for the dragon, attributing different iconographic characteristics to it; with a curved or serpentine body, with or without horns, and with a varying number of legs. These characters, pictograms, are considered the first Chinese writing (established during the Shang period 16^rd-11^rd s. BC) and are of particular interest for the study of dragon iconography. There appears to be a correlation between these characters and representations of the dragon; for example, some characters seem to be derived from the dragons depicted on C-shaped jades.

Different spellings of the dragon character found on turtle bones or shells. © Li Xiaohong

After the submission of the Dragon Clan (long), said to be descended from the celestial dragon, by King Wu Ding of the Shang clan, the dragon also appears on bronzes. During the Shang period, it became the most represented motif on bronzes and jades. The dragon, whose iconography has evolved considerably since the Neolithic, is often accompanied by the kui, a one-legged buffalo without horns, which corresponds to a very simplified form of the dragon. It is found on two categories of bronze or jade objects: tools and weapons, and ritual objects. These ritual objects, demonstrating the hierarchical superiority of the king of Shang over the other lords, as well as his religious power, could fulfill various functions: used in the context of sacrifices for the divinities, ceremonies in honor of the arrival of important figures or to celebrate victories. These objects illustrate legends, with fantastic beings; the dragons that populate this legendary imagery are thus linked to numerous symbols that enrich its iconography.

Finger basin tomb of Lady Hao (Decoration survey). Bronze. Shang Dynasty. c. 1200 BC © Li Xiaohong.

Finger basin tomb of Lady Hao (detail of the dragon head). Bronze. Shang Dynasty. c. 1200 BC © Li Xiaohong.

Lei vase with dragon standing on the lid. Bronze. Zhou Dynasty (1050 and 771 BC). Around 11th century BC ©Cernuschi Museum.

The objects from the tomb of Lady Hao, wife of the Shang ruler Wu Ding (1250 – 1191 BC), are among the most characteristic examples of Shang bronze production, combining bas-relief and sculpture in the round. A finger-bowl, inscribed with the name of Lady Hao, depicts a large dragon, as a protective symbol of the deceased. It is depicted with a prominent head, with horns, and a long serpentine body covered in so-called T-shaped meanders, typical of aquatic animals, with dorsal ridges. This large dragon is accompanied by other animals around the basin: birds, fish and dragons. kui seem to follow each other when the water in the basin is set in motion. This race symbolizes the protective energy of the dragon. Among the other motifs that accompany the dragon, we still find the taotie. Depicted with a bodiless head with an exaggerated upper lip and no lower lip, it is said to devour people. This is a supernatural animal iconography, it is often represented on bronzes, sometimes associated with the dragon motif.

Like the vase lei acquired by Henri Cernuschi, several objects have a lid depicting a dragon in the round, with a serpentine body, raised on its legs, with a head with prominent eyes, two horns in the shape of a "periwinkle" and dorsal ridges. This model could have been designed from ceramic prototypes which depicted a serpentine dragon coiled on itself. The decoration of these vases is typical of the decorative development under the Shang. The dragons, taotie, kui and other hybrid creatures are accompanied by cloud and lightning motifs. The multiplication of motifs on the bronze vessels was intended to produce a frightening effect in order to teach which evil spirits were to be feared.

There are other hybrid forms, such as the double dragon depicted on a vase gui, featuring on its lid two dragon heads facing each other, one with a pair of periwinkle-shaped horns and the other with a pair of phallus-shaped horns, while the belly features their intertwined tails, with kui used as a filling pattern. This pattern is interpreted as a representation of the union of the yin and that, which symbolizes harmony and fertility.

The meanders that appear on the bodies or around the dragons on the bronze vases are of different types: in “C”, in “S” or even in “T”; empty or filled, according to the symbolism of the yin and that. These meanders can be compared to the characters jiaguwen, associating an idea with a motif. They thus represent clouds or lightning, and are associated with representations of the dragon.

You Vase (called the Tigress). Bronze. Shang Dynasty (1500-1050 BC). Probably from the 11th century BC ©Cernuschi Museum.

Detail of the dragon engraved at the base of the You vase (called the Tigress). Bronze. Shang Dynasty (1500-1050 BC). Probably from the 11th century BC ©Cernuschi Museum.

The Tigress by Cernuschi, a vase you intended to contain alcohol for ritual practices, is another remarkable example of Shang-era bronzes. Representing a feline with its mouth open, clasping a human figure against its chest, this object has attracted the interest of many researchers and given rise to multiple interpretations. It could be the representation of a Shang-era shaman entering into communication with the gods, here symbolized by the tiger. It could also be a sacrifice, in a ritual to ward off evil spirits or for the prosperity of the country. The representation of an imposing taotie could mean that those who take from others must be punished. Under the Shang, war called for sacrifice and victory for ritual celebration.